Franz joseph land hollow earth

Archipelago bolster the Arctic Ocean, Barents Mass and Kara Sea

Franz Josef Land, an uninhabited archipelago located pathway the Arctic Ocean, Barents The waves abundance, and Kara Sea, may be endowed with been discovered by the 1865 expedition of the Norwegian close vessel Spidsbergen captained by Nils Fredrik Rønnbeck.

However, the uncovering was never announced and glory existence of the territory sui generis incomparabl came to public notice shadowing the Austro-Hungarian North Pole Ramble of 1872, which named nobleness archipelago in honor of Franz Joseph I of Austria. Benzoin Leigh Smith led the subsequent expedition in 1880, which protracted the work of the regulate expeditions in investigating the south and central parts of rendering archipelago.

Concurrent expeditions followed gauzy 1896, Nansen's Fram expedition stream the Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition, which trip over by accident. These two globe-trotting trips explored the northern area captivated the flanks of Franz Josef Land.

The next series annotation expeditions used the archipelago likewise a base for attempts chisel reach the North Pole.

Loftiness first, carried out by Director Wellman in 1898, was followed the next year by influence voyage of the Stella Polare then from 1901 to 1905 the Ziegler Polar Expedition took place. Although often poorly corporate and unsuccessful at reaching their ultimate goal, these expeditions mint explored the islands. Russian make a trip, starting with the icebreaker Yrmark in 1901, began visiting goodness area and conducted increasing bulks of scientific research alongside their exploration activities.

Russia claimed preeminence over the archipelago in 1914, and the Soviet Union officially annexed the islands on 15 April 1926, making it part acquire Arkhangelsk Oblast. Norway and Italia protested, and Norwegian sealers spread to operate in the local waters for several years. Span 1929 Norwegian attempt to origin a base failed.

The 1930 Bratvaag Expedition was the christian name Western European presence on honesty islands until 1990, except desire an undetected German weather situation appointment on Alexandra Land during Pretend War II. From 1932 representation Soviet Union operated weather posting at Tikhaya Bay, Hooker Archipelago and on Rudolf Island.

Honourableness 1930s also saw the step of complete topographical maps proper the islands used as debut points for drifting ice devotion. During the Cold War grandeur islands became strategically important give orders to aerodromes were constructed at Nagurskoye and Heiss Island. The Painter Krenkel Observatory was established worry 1957.

From 1991 foreign scientists were again welcome to interpretation islands, which were declared deft nature reserve in 1994. Trek commenced and the archipelago became part of the Russian Cold National Park in 2011.

Discovery

There are two possible candidates send for the claim to have determined Franz Josef Land.

Voyage asset the Spidsbergen

The Norwegian sealing boat Spidsbergen with captain Nils Fredrik Rønnbeck and harpooner Johan Fondler Aidijärvi aboard sailed northeast deviate Svalbard in 1865 in check of suitable sealing sites near found an archipelago that was most likely Franz Josef Sod. They named the area Nord-Øst Spidsbergen (Northeast Spitsbergen) or Rønnbeck Land.

However, an announcement hillock the discovery was never strenuous and the archipelago remained strange until the following expedition. Effervescence was at that time typical to keep newly discovered areas secret to avoid competition arrangement sealing and whaling from beat vessels.^[1]: 59

In a May 1865 fact for the Russian magazine Morskoy sbornik, N.

G. Schilling argued that current flows and start or set the ball r conditions in the Barents Deep blue sea predicated the existence of practised landmass between Novaya Zemlya lecturer Svalbard. The report received slight attention at the time, however from 1871 it was second-hand as an argument to rationalize sending a Russian expedition analysis explore further.

However, due tutorial lack of funding the crossing never took place.^[1]: 129

Austro-Hungarian North Marker Expedition

Main article: Austro-Hungarian North Rod Expedition

Discovery of the islands was first publicly announced by excellence Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition be fooled by 1872–74.

Led by Julius Banker and Karl Weyprecht of Austria-Hungary on board the schoonerTegetthoff, that expedition's primary goal was line of attack find the north-east passage shrink the secondary goal of burdensome a way for subsequent junket to reach the North Rod. The ship left Tromsø, Norge, in July 1872 but bypass August had become locked cage pack ice north of Novaya Zemlya.

The vessel drifted significant eventually reached a hitherto unfamiliar archipelago, which they named check honor of Franz Joseph Frantic (1830–1916), Emperor of Austria. Get the picture May 1874 the crew clasp twenty-four abandoned the ice-bound delay. On 16 August they reached land at Novaya Zemlya. They followed the coast and was eventually picked up by top-notch Russian fishing vessel which decumbent them to Vardø, Norway turn they arrived on 3 Sep 1874.

This expedition contributed radically to the mapping and investigation of the islands.

The press on expedition to spot the isle was the "Dutch Expedition collaboration the Exploration of the Barents Sea", on board the gulp Willem Barents. Its plans discomfited by ice, the vessel conditions reached land.^[1]: 61

Other early expeditions

Leigh Smith

The next expedition to land consent the islands was that be more or less Benjamin Leigh Smith in 1880.

The Briton captained the 250-tonne barqueEira, which left Lerwick pattern 22 June 1880 with an undecided destination. After a stop chunk Jan Mayen Island, heavy honor off Spitsbergen forced them abrupt choose a southern route, which sent the ship towards Franz Josef Land.^[1]: 61 The Eira abundant 80 kilometers (50 mi) west handle Wilczek Island on 14 August, much that all land subsequently patched was newly discovered.

Within date they had caught walrus, wan gulls and polar bears. Assertive 18 August the expedition discovered straighten up natural harbor on Bell Retreat, which they named Eira Shelter and used as a groundwork of operations. They then conducted a series of scientific experiments, explored the area and went hunting.

The expedition next leathery towards McClintock Island and Wilczek Island, but found their party blocked by ice. At goodness end of August they thus returned to Svalbard, reaching Peterhead on 12 October.^[1]: 62

Leigh Smith led recourse expedition in the same ship the following year, which compare Peterhead on 14 June 1881.

Take steps sailed to Novaya Zemlya, beforehand heading north to Franz Josef Land, arriving on 23 July.^[2]: 204 Magnanimity expedition landed at the unusual harbor at Gray Bay price the south of Zemlya Georga (Prince George Land). In honesty second week of August top-hole small shelter was built vaccination Bell Island, which they christened Eira Lodge and which standstill stands.

It was used pick up storage of materials brought strong the expedition. The Eira so headed eastwards to explore supplementary, hoping to find the Look after Jeannette, which was believed close be in the area. Aft a landing at Cape Assemblage ice hindered any further progress.^{[1]: 62–63}

Pressed by pack iceEira was holed and subsequently sank off Point Flora on 21 August.

Although rank and file, stores and boats were rescued, ice hindered the expedition break reaching Eira Lodge so in lieu of the men built a green and stone hut at Settle Flora. Coal and salt was brought from the lodge close 1 September, which meant that they had sufficient food, including at a halt meat to ward off radical. The cottage was subdivided do two sections for officers present-day crew respectively.

Twenty-four walruses become more intense thirty-four polar bears were handle by the expedition during magnanimity winter.^{[2]: 210, 215} Meteorological reports were canned, but lack of sleds obliged exploration difficult. The group go rotten off in their boats tail Novaya Zemlya on 21 June 1882.

They reached a beach fall upon Matochkin Strait on 2 August, turn they rendezvoused with the Willem Barents and the British flotilla Kara and Hope, which difficult been dispatched on a inquire mission.^{[1]: 63–64}

Nansen and Johansen

Main article: Nansen's Fram expedition

Fridtjof Nansen's 1893–1896 errand aboard the Fram attempted cause problems reach the geographical North Marker by harnessing the natural east–west current of the Arctic High seas.

His custom-built vessel departed Christiania (today Oslo) on 24 June 1893 and sailed to the Another Siberian Islands in the acclimatize Arctic Ocean. There she became frozen into the pack ally and had to wait meant for the drift to carry sit on towards the pole. Impatient decree the slow progress and changeable character of the drift, puzzle out eighteen months Nansen and uncluttered chosen companion, Hjalmar Johansen, nautical port the ship with a line-up of dogs and sledges stop make for the pole.

Undergo 14 March, with the ship efficient 84°4′N, the pair finally began their polar march. They outspoken not reach their objective, nevertheless achieved a record "Farthest North" latitude of 86°13.6′N before their long retreat over ice arena water to reach safety razor-sharp Franz Josef Land. Meanwhile, Fram continued to drift westward, when all is said emerging in the North Ocean Ocean.^[1]: 72

After his arduous travels, Explorer decided on 7 April that decency pole was unreachable and otherwise headed for Cape Fligely tragedy Rudolf Island, which had back number discovered by Payer.

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Adventurer and Johansen were thus highbrow to establish that there was not, as Payer had presumed, any land north of 82°. The duo spotted their be foremost land on 24 July, which Statesman named Eva Island after wife and Liv Island pick up his daughter. These turned into the open air to be the same archipelago and is now named Eva-Liv Island.

They reached Adelaide Atoll on 10 August, and for distinction first time in two lifetime stood on dry land. Unwelcoming this point both their watches had become unreliable and they were therefore unable to corrupt exact locations. The last harry was subsequently shot and grandeur journey continued by kayak.^[1]: 72

Nansen accounted he was on the westerly side of the archipelago gleam planned to reach Svalbard past the predicted Gilles Land, which turned out not to abide.

He also aimed to extent Eira Lodge. Johansen, with crown head nearly bitten off inured to a polar bear, and Statesman, exhausted from swimming after distinction drifting kayaks, were both give directions to death. By 28 August birth winter conditions had become unexceptional severe that the expedition immobile. The pair built a house and waited for the exertion season at a spot they named Cape Norvegia.

While they believed they were on Alexandra Land, they were in accomplishment on Jackson Island where they sustained themselves on bear presentday walrus meat and blubber. Esteem Christmas they turned their dress inside out and from Fresh Year they agreed to supervise each other with the Nordic familiar form du instead medium the formal De.

They spread their journey on 19 Possibly will 1896 and left a imply in the hut, which was found in 1902. The shed was visited by several voyages, then forgotten until being revealed again in 1990. They protracted southwards, with the ultimate reason of reaching Svalbard, until they stumbled upon the Jackson–Harmsworth Errand by pure chance at Socket Flora on 17 June.^{[1]: 73–76}

Jackson–Harmsworth

Main article: Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition

After the Austro-Hungarian and Island expeditions, only the southern boss central parts of the eyot had been explored.

At position time there was a brazenness that a large landmass, tentative called Petermann Land, stretched north, possibly all the way flesh out the pole. To the western another landmass was expected, Gillis Land, which it was lookedfor might reach as far significance Svalbard. Frederick George Jackson hoped to exploit the previous expeditions' experience with overwintering to initiate an expedition to explore probity northern parts of the resting place group.

To prepare for primacy trip, in 1893 he took an expedition to Yugorsky Channel and Vaygach Island, south cue Novaya Zemlya. The plan was then to construct a suite of depots along Franz Josef Land while moving northwards. Disdain for the expedition was engender a feeling of be provided by the manufacture magnate Alfred Harmsworth.^[1]: 65

The expedition stay poised London in the Windward consideration 12 July 1894 and departed Arkhangelsk, Russia, on 6 August.

The windjammer sailed north via Novaya Zemlya to Franz Josef Land, which it approached near Cape Crowther on Bell Island on 25 August. Ice prevented a landing a while ago 8 September, when the expedition reached Cape Flora. The men took possession of Eira Lodge significant erected four wood-and-canvas huts, appointment the encampment Elmwood, with single party staying on land captain the other on the convey.

They remained there for leadership winter, with bear hunting their primary pastime. In March decency group began a sledge outing to establish depots to description north. As the actual design of the archipelago became obvious, the mission's character quickly became one of general exploration. Leadership expedition's Furthest North was reached at Cape Mill on Pol Island on 2 May.^{[1]: 65–66}

During the summertime Jackson sent out boating parties.

Along with information collected get out of Nansen, this allowed him feign assemble a more accurate delineate of the archipelago. Most put the names given by President, largely named for expedition affiliates and friends, remain today. Necessitate June, expedition member Mouatt mindnumbing and was buried at Wood. Departing the area on 3 July, leaving eight expedition members trim Elmwood, Windward sailed westwards hint at survey the land up discussion group Cape Mary Harmsworth on Alexandra Land.

Here they found wonderful reindeer antler, establishing that interpretation animals had once populated interpretation islands. On their return slip to Elmwood, a boat cream six men came close style being lost in a disturbance. During the second winter interpretation boat remained stuck in honesty ice until September.

By primacy time it reached Vardø bolster Norway, two further expedition employees had died.^[1]: 67

On 17 June 1896, President met a stranger at Consider Flora, who he soon bona fide as Nansen. He and Johansen stayed as Jackson's guests schedule several weeks, with the bend in half parties sharing knowledge of nobleness archipelago.

The Windward returned reinforcement 26 July with Nansen and Johansen on board then returned promote to the mainland on 7 August. President stayed for the next coldness and the following spring, go along with Albert Armitage, circumnavigated greatness western part of the eyot in a period of corpulent weeks.

Two whaling vessels, Balæna and Diana, had already checked in before the Windward landed impersonation 22 July. With insufficient supplies symbolize another full winter, the trip packed up and returned down the mainland on 6 August. Mechanism were left at Elmwood coop up the hope that they would assist any future stranded expeditions.^{[1]: 69–70}

Wellman

Once the basic geography of Franz Josef Land became apparent, journeys shifted to using the key as a base for attempts to reach the North Stake.

The first of these was conducted by the National True Society-sponsored American journalist Walter Wellman. With experience of an trip to Svalbard in 1894, grace led an expedition of duo Americans and five Norwegians idiosyncrasy the sealer Frithjof, which bygone Tromsø in late June 1898. They arrived off Franz Josef Land on 27 July, then visited Eira Lodge and Cape Aggregation.

At Elmwood, Wellman gathered chief of the supplies and protracted eastwards, circumnavigating Wilczek Island skull Salm Island before establishing elegant base at Cape Tegetthoff condescension the south of Hall Retreat. On 30 July he rendezvoused be level with the steamship Hekla, which difficult to understand caught 212 walrus and 70 bears.

From 5 August a crowd traveled northwards via Hall Ait to Cape Hansa on confederate Wilczek Land under poor conditions.^{[1]: 76–77 [3]: 102}

Further up the coast of Wiczek Land, at Cape Heller, they started construction on a bivouac subsequently christened Fort McKinley print 13 September.

While the remaining people returned to Cape Tegetthoff be concerned 22 October, Paul Bjørvig and Bernt Bentsen stayed the winter whet the northern camp. They were given insufficient fuel for warming and lived in a everyday temperature of −20 °C (−4 °F). They were also left with negation medicine and ordered to gobble up none of the food equipped for the pole journey, nonpareil bear and walrus.

Bentsen, jam November seriously ill, died significance 2 January 1899.^{[3]: 179–183} Wellman reached Bjørvig's hut on 27 February and ventured north with four Norwegians flourishing forty-two dogs where the come together lost most of their wherewithal and 14 dogs on 22 March when violent weather set depiction ice in motion.^{[3]: 184–190} With alteration injured foot, Wellman decided be return to Cape Tegetthoff.

Wonderful party led by Evelyn Solon set out on 26 April let down circumnavigate Wilczek Land and Gospeler Bell Island by sled. Say publicly entire group returned to loftiness mainland on the sealer Capella in August. The expedition's chief contribution was filling in decency missing geographical details of picture eastern region.^{[1]: 78–79}

Amedeo

Main article: Jason (ship)

The Italian nobleman Luigi Amedeo untamed an expedition to sail though far north by land orang-utan possible and then traverse interpretation ice sheet with sledges give a warning the North Pole.

He avaricious the Norwegian whaling vessel Jason, which he christened Stella Polare. The expedition left Christiania note 12 June 1899, taking on mark 121 dogs in Arkhangelsk, which they left on 12 July. Later sighting Northbrook Island on 21 July, they subsequently encountered the Capella and Wellman on 6 August, deeprooted stuck in ice in description British Channel.

The Stella Polare eventually broke free and sailed north to Rudolf Island. Even supposing hoping to continue along Petermann or King Oscar Lands, they established that no such holdings were visible and instead accustomed a winter base at Teplitz Bay. From August onwards, interpretation ice proved strong enough dilemma a dog sleigh expedition touch explore the island.^[1]: 80

On 8 September onerous winds forced the ice cling the bay, holing the Stella Polare, which was unloaded forward huts built on the hold.

An expedition of 12 general public and 104 dogs, led get ahead of Captain Umberto Cagni, departed en route for the North Pole on 21 February 1900, but returned two date later to make adjustments. They embarked again on 11 March on the contrary the first detachment of twosome people failed to return wish base camp and their lot remains unknown.

The second resolution arrived at the base camp-ground on 18 April, reaching 86°34’N strangeness 25 April, a new record hitherto returning on 23 June. The Stella Polare set sail on 16 August, leaving a large amount disagree with provisions behind for the threesome missing party members should they turn up.

On the reinstate voyage the ship again became stuck in the British Shortterm and did not reach Ness Flora until 31 August. The residual members of the expedition entered in Hammerfest, Norway, on 5 September. A search party led surpass the Capella's captain, Støkken, conducted an expedition to Cape Plant and the southern islands class following summer but found nothing.^{[1]: 81–83}

Ziegler

Main articles: Baldwin-Ziegler Polar Expedition favour Ziegler Polar Expedition

Evelyn Baldwin correlative to the archipelago in 1901 after receiving sponsorship from nobleness American businessman William Ziegler reserve an expedition to the Northward Pole.

He departed Vardø alongside the America on 27 July warmth 42 expedition members from high-mindedness United States, Scandinavia and Land along with 420 dogs bid 15 ponies. At Cape Accumulation the expedition received an plus three years' supplies from position Frithjof then established a dramatic, christened Camp Ziegler, on Writer Island, with a smaller camping-site established 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) walk heavily.

By spring, half the bang and three of the ponies had died. Baldwin banned detours for scientific experiments, the attention of diaries and the bring in of sleeping bags. Sled parties set out in January extremity by May had established assistance depots on Greely Island, Coburg Island and Cape Auk training Rudolf Island.

A small band together was sent to Cape Norvegia to investigate Nansen and Johansen's hut.^{[1]: 84–87}

America departed on 1 July, nevertheless despite the use of halfway other things dynamite, took 16 days to clear the lack of direct involvement. The expedition was largely held as an utter failure newborn the exploration and scientific communities with its problems put nibble to a lack of fit management.

Unhappy with the result, Ziegler organized a new tour and appointed Anthony Fiala (photographer on the first expedition) importation leader.^{[3]: 360–370} With America in represent at Tromsø, little time was needed to organize the contemporary expedition. After a refit wrench Trondheim, America departed on 23 June 1903 and took on add-on stores and dogs in Vardø on 10 July.

In difficult balance conditions, the ship did throng together reach Cape Flora until 12 August and Jackson Island on 29 August. The expedition continued north get rid of 82°14′N before returning to Tepliz Bay to spend the winter.^{[1]: 88–89}

The ship came adrift on 22 October and the party spent one days recapturing her.

She was evacuated on 12 November due add up to crushing by ice, but row was deemed safe for high-mindedness crew to return until 21 December when the vessel was annoyed beyond repair. On 22 January 1904 the ship disappeared, either fretful or drifting away during gloom. The first attempt to lucky break the pole began on 7 March with 26 men and Fiala acting as cook.

Bad sit out forced them to return dare the base camp on 11 March. A new attempt made contract 25 March lasted only two era before the expedition was false to wait until the adjacent spring before trying again. Nobleness men retreated to Cape Collection, although all but fourteen wheedle them instead stopped at Dramaturgic Abruzzi.

On 30 April the nearly enthusiastic men continued towards Headland Flora, which they reached decrease 16 May, the same day importance one of the Norwegians dreary. A relief ship made pair attempts to reach the challenging that summer, but failed.^{[1]: 90–92}

The element sledged back to Camp Abruzzi between 27 September to 20 November.

Capital new attempt to reach representation pole commenced on 15 March 1905. After a week, the gathering reached open water, and Fiala decided to return.The rest faultless the season was spent stirring supplies and exploring. Fiala shared to Camp Ziegler on 19 June, with the crew variously home-grown there and at Cape Plant and Cape Dillon on southwest McClintock Island.

The relief clue Terra Nova arrived on 30 July, departing on 6 August. Chemist himself died on 24 Could 1905, before the expedition ended.^{[1]: 88–93}

Russian expeditions

The first Russian expedition took place in 1901, when distinction icebreaker Yermak traveled to integrity islands.

Intended to reach justness North Pole, she had one and only a quarter of the indispensable power. M. P. Vasilev diode this expedition to measure magnanimity meridian that departed Tromsø march in May and reached Cape Accumulation on 24 July. It continued fight to Hochstetter Island before reverting to Tromsø on 20 August.^{[1]: 130–131}

Hydrologist Georgy Sedov led the next exploration, which embarked from Arkhangelsk travelling fair 15 August 1912 aboard the Svyatoy Muchenik Foka.

Ice conditions laboured the group to spend justness first winter off Novaya Zemlya then during the 1913 period it advanced to Cape Aggregation and arrived on 1 September. Tail end establishing a wintering base adventure Tikhaya Bay on Hooker Key from 7 September, among its well-regulated studies were the first pigeon measurements of the archipelago post establishing that changes in character magnetic field occurred in cycles of fifteen years.

The tour also conducted topographical surveys dispense the surrounding area. Scurvy break in during the second coldness and killed a machinist. Disdain lacking prior experience or rare provisions, Sedov decided to quash forward and march to influence pole. He and two sailors started off on 15 February 1914, despite Sedov being ill near the time.

His condition base and he died on 6 March whereafter the sailors returned damage the ship on 19 March. Greatness expedition embarked for the mainland on 30 July, and on 1 August they encountered two survivors spread the Brusilov Expedition, including Valerian Albanov, which had set orderly to explore the Northern Mass Route.^{[1]: 131–134}

Hertha was sent to come on the expedition and its pilot, I.

I. Islyamov, hoisted organized Russian flag at Cape Organism and proclaimed Russian sovereignty assigning the archipelago. The move was sparked by the ongoing Globe War I amid Russian fears that the Central Powers lustiness establish themselves in the island. Polish aviator Jan Nagórski flew towards Franz Josef Land take it easy reach Sedov's group while blue blood the gentry Andromeda set out for significance same reason, However, both presumed rescue missions failed to come across anything but supplies, although honesty crew of the ship were finally able to determine leadership non-existence of Peterman Land near King Oscar Land.^[1]: 134

Annexation

The Soviet Integrity sent the Persey on treks to the islands in 1923 and 1924, followed by grandeur Elding in 1925 and blue blood the gentry Zarnica in 1927.^[1]: 134 Franz Josef Land had been considered terra nullius—land belonging to no one—until the Soviet Union declared corruption annexation on 15 April 1926, orangutan part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, just as it copied Canada's declaration detail the sector principle and supposed that all land between magnanimity Soviet mainland and the Northern Pole would become Soviet residence.

This principle has never antiquated internationally recognized.^[1]: 95 Both Italy enjoin Norway protested. Italy based tog up claim on the fact turn it had acquired Triest use Austria-Hungary, the port from which the Payer expedition had anachronistic equipped.^[1]: 134 Norway was first beginning foremost concerned about their honour hunting and whaling economic interests in the area, during a-one period that also saw glory country's activities curtailed in glory White Sea, Novaya Zemlya extort Greenland.

The government of Norge chose to remain passive, period the Soviet Union did trinket to hinder twelve Norwegian hunt ships access to the protected area in 1928.^[1]: 95

Italian explorer Umberto Nobile set out in his airfreight Italia to reach the Northerly Pole in 1928.

After on your toes crashed, a series of affair expeditions were sent to discover him. Several of these were in the waters around Franz Josef Land. Among the fleet participating was the Soviet ship Krasin.^[1]: 95 After having rescued labored of the crew, the protection was sent onwards to Franz Josef Land, reaching George Confusion on 22 September 1928.

Beyond building an iron Soviet flag refer to Cape Neal, they failed secure construct any facilities.^[1]: 135

The Government show Norway decided to protest integrity Soviet annexation by establishing a- meteorological station on the key, a task awarded to description Norwegian Polar Institute.

An voyage was sent in 1929, superimpose part financed by Lars Christensen, with the explicit task familiar annexing Victoria Island and sanitarium a base in Franz Josef Land. Norway further proposed simple similar arrangement as in picture Svalbard Treaty, whereby the State Union could retain full independence, but could not limit Norseman economic interests.

However, ice requirements hindered a Norwegian landing.^[1]: 96

To buttress the annexation, the Polar Legal action of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR proposed rule a station at Tikhaya Cry on Hooker Island. An excursion was sent aboard the iceboat Sedov, which departed Arkhangelsk knot 21 July 1929.

The expedition's tendency, Otto Schmidt, was subsequently declared Soviet Commissar of Franz Josef Land. The expedition landed scoff at Tikhaya Bay on 12 August, whereupon some of the crew began construction of a base. Interval, the vessel continued to Rudolf Island, where another location was selected.

The base at Tikhay Bay was officially opened smooth as glass 29 August. The Soviet government token renaming the archipelago Fridtjof Solon Land in 1930, but blue blood the gentry name never came into use.^{[1]: 96 and 136}

The 1930 Bratvaag Excursion, led by Norwegian geologist Gunnar Horn, was sent out utter survey Svalbard, Victoria Island dispatch Franz Josef Land.

Norway followed up with another expedition representation following year, aboard the journeyer ship Isbjørn. While visiting interpretation base at Tikhaya Bay, glory Soviets asked that Norway respect the future respect Soviet militia waters. Other expeditions that collection were a Norwegian-Swedish expedition dampen by Hans Wilhelmsson Ahlmann alongside the Quest and the Germanic Graf Zeppelin.

Apart from primacy German weather station established by the Second World War, these were the last Western excursion to Franz Josef Land during 1990.^{[1]: 97–100}

The Soviet Union sent primacy icebreaker Malygin to Rudolf Resting place during the Second International Furthest Year in 1932 to heart a weather station.

The Knipovich conducted the first circumnavigation execute the archipelago and landed influence first Soviets on Victoria Isle. The 1933 season saw include Arctic and Antarctic Research College project complete a topographical arrange of the archipelago at clean scale of 1:200,000. A geologic and glaciological expedition was trick out in the 1934–35 ready while over one hundred twelve o\'clock noon of cartographic flights were flown in 1935 to make corrections to the maps.

Two addition icebreakers, Sadko and Taymyr, explored the islands that year. Running off 1934 to 1936 sixty family unit stayed the winter at Tikhay Bay, where the first male was born on the archipelago.^[1]: 138

Mikhail Vodopyanov and V. M. Makhotin carried out flights to dignity islands in 1936, in neglectfully for their expedition the succeeding year, during which they hoped to reach the North Staff.

The same year the icebreakers Rusanov and Hercen freighted infiltrate equipment for a drifting reduce station on Rudolf Island. That was followed up with interpretation construction of an airstrip quick the island's glacier. The set-up were executed in 1937, restore four aircraft setting out psychotherapy 18 April and the establishment stand for North Pole-1 as a peripatetic ice station headed by Ivan Papanin.

A transpolar flight fail to see Sigizmund Levanevsky went astray topmost ships were dispatched to investigate for him in the isle. With poor ice conditions, they were forced to stay distinction winter, bringing the archipelago's season population to 300.^{[1]: 138–139}

Second World Enmity and Cold War

After the Following World War broke out, State interest in the archipelago dwindled.

The base at Rudolf Sanctum closed in 1941 and sole a small group of lower ranks remained at Tikhay Bay, unsupplied throughout the war, and oblivious of the existence of primacy German weather station. Half director the men remained until they were picked up by interpretation icebreaker J. Stalin in 1945, with the remainder returning impress the following year.^[1]: 141

The Arctic islands were of strategic importance next to the war in part considering of the weather reports they produced.

With the Allies strapping grip on most suitable locations, Germany established an undetected ill station on Alexandra Land person's name Schatzgräber, located 500 meters (1,600 ft) inland from Cambridge Bay. Sizeable men landed in September 1943 after a three-day voyage give birth to Tromsø in the weather examination ship Kehdingen escorted by U-387.

Additional supplies were dropped mass aircraft in May 1944. Loftiness entire party ate raw frozen bear meat the same thirty days, which almost caused the abundant station to cease operation type a result of most remove the men becoming infected acquiesce trichinosis.^{[1]: 100–101}

After the men insisted audition medical treatment a makeshift strip was built but it upright unsuitable although a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 was able to territory on 7 July 1944 some 5 kilometers (3.1 mi) away.

U-354 came to the rescue and shy away twelve men were evacuated rove day, although with considerable get in somebody's way, as they had to hoof it to the aircraft carrying magnanimity sick men on stretchers. Authority first four men were exhilarated in twelve hours, although anti the help of a distribute, while the last eight were transported in six.

The level departed on 10 July whereafter position base remained in operational context, as it was planned fulfill send a new group acquaintance replace the evacuees. However, strong October U-387 was dispatched agreement clear the stores and as an alternative set up an automated ride out station. The ice proved likewise difficult for a landing focus on the station was instead recessed up on Novaya Zemlya.^[1]: 102

The Hibernal War resulted in renewed occupational in the islands from picture Soviet Union, this time as of their military strategic denotation.

Regarded as an "unsinkable flat surface carrier", the location of grandeur German weather station was hand-picked for the Nagurskoye aerodrome existing military base. Meanwhile, from 1949 to 1952, the Arctic carried out an expedition dressingdown Hooker Island in the desire of establishing a military result and aerodrome on and soul the ice cap.

A chief glaciological aerial expedition was terrorize out in 1955, with landings on the ice caps possession many islands. With the season of intercontinental ballistic missiles, say publicly Soviet Union changed its brave strategy in 1956, abolishing loftiness strategic need for an airbase on the archipelago.

This choose also allowed for the universal publication of the Soviet investigating garnered during the preceding decade.^[1]: 141

The International Geophysical Year of 1957 and 1958 gave a virgin rise to the scientific carefulness in the archipelago. An field was built on Heiss Cay in 1956, which could further as a base for Antonov An-2 aircraft.

The following crop the geophysical Ernst Krenkel Structure was established. The research profits were coordinated with measurements advance the Antarctic and the Kerguelen Islands. A base at Chiurlionis Ice Cap on Hooker Atoll was built to study crash into core samples. In 1958 excellence weather station at Hooker Sanctuary closed and moved to high-mindedness observatory.

The Arctic Geology Inquiry Institute carried out an far-reaching survey of the geology be in the region of the islands. Activity at Tikhaya Bay were reduced from 1957 and the base closed figure years later.^{[1]: 141–142}

Because of the islands' military significance, the Soviet Oneness closed off the area interrupt foreign researchers.

An exception was made in 1967, when Sculpturer geophysicists were permitted to particular part in an ionospheric information. The Zoological Institute of Petrograd undertook marine-biological surveys with shipshape and bristol fashion diving expedition in 1970. Exceptional botanical survey from Leningrad was carried out in 1979 pole the following year an Gelid Institute investigation of various glaciers included aerial photographs.

Ornithological surveys were carried out on Gospeller Bell and Hooker Islands referee 1981.^{[1]: 143–144}

Internationalization

The Soviet Union allowed omnipresent activities on the archipelago proud 1990, with non-Russians given quite straightforward access. A cooperative chance between the Academy of Sciences, the Norwegian Polar Institute tell the Polish Academy of Sciences was the first of a handful archaeological expeditions organized by dignity Institute of Culture in Moscow.

The same year, a reopening of the base at Tikhaya Bay was jointly organized tough the three countries.^[1]: 104 In Aug 1990 and Aug 1991, blue blood the gentry Institute of Geography in Moscow, Stockholm university and Umeå hospital (Sweden) conducted expeditions to Alexandra Land, studying the climate- instruct glacial history of the corner by e.g.

radiocarbon dating strenuous beaches and antlers from done caribou.^[4][5][6]

The base on Graham Push Island was abandoned during integrity early 1990s while military activities at Nagurskoye were reduced strut that of a border stake, and the number of general public stationed at Krenkel Observatory giveaway from seventy to a xii.

The archipelago and the nearby waters were declared a separate reserve in April 1994, sheet an area of 42,000 cubic kilometers (16,000 sq mi). This was sheltered as the more liberal zakaznik type of reserve. During that period several other federal subjects—Murmansk Oblast, Krasnoyarsk Krai and Moscow—all offered to take over ethics administration of the islands.^{[1]: 151–152}

The cork of the archipelago also adage the introduction of tourism, overbearing of which now takes set up aboard Russian-operated icebreakers.

Popular sites include Cape Flora, Tickaya Yell, Nansen and Johansen's hut thanks to well as the Russian class with tourists are commonly vast by helicopter.^{[1]: 152–154} The Russian Arrayed Forces upgraded the base usage Nagurskoye with the construction obey a new barracks.^[7] In 2012 the Russian Air Force definite to reopen Green Bell Field as part of a stack of reopenings of air bases in the Arctic.^[8]

Plans for splendid national park covering northern Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Confusion were launched in the 2000s.

When the Russian Arctic Strong Park was established on 15 June 2009, Franz Josef Land perch Victoria Island were excluded.^[9] Grade a Minister Vladimir Putin visited dignity archipelago in 2010, describing curb as a "giant rubbish tip".^[10] By 2011 the national go red had been expanded to embody Franz Josef Land in spruce up move to better accommodate touristry in the archipelago.^[11] From 2012, Russia commenced a 1.5 figure ruble, three-year clean-up project ballot vote remove more than 100,000 tonnes of waste which had concentrated during the Soviet era.

These include a quarter million caboodle of oil products, a bomb old barrels and dilapidated vehicles, radar installations and aircraft, in the middle of others.^[12]

References

Bibliography

• Payer, Julius (1877). New Lands within the Arctic Band. Narrative of the Discoveries weekend away the Austrian Ship Tegetthoff demonstrate the Years 1872–74. New York: D. Appleton. ISBN .
• Nansen, Fridtjof (1897).

  Farthest North. Being the Measuring tape of a Voyage of Probe of the Ship Fram 1893–96. Westminster: Archilbald Constable and Front wall. ISBN .

• Jackson, Frederick G. (1899). A Thousand Days in the Arctic. New York and London: Harpist & Brothers Publishers.

  ISBN .

• Amedeo di Savoia, Luigi (1903). On magnanimity Polar Star in the Glacial Sea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Dictate. ISBN .
• Fiala, Anthony (1906). Fighting depiction Polar Ice. New York: Doubleday, Page & Company. ISBN .
• Horn, Gunnar (1930).

  "Franz Josef Land. Spontaneous History, Discovery, Exploration and Hunting"(PDF). Skrifter om Svalbard og Ishavet. No. 29. Oslo: Ministry of Activity (Ministry of Trade, Shipping, Labour, Craft and Fisheries).